اللي يحبني او يعزني او يحترمني يدخل ...

[كسولة لكن مو كسلانة]

السلااااااااااام
شخباركم؟؟؟؟؟؟


اللي يحبني او يعزني ... او يحترمني
يساعدني بليييييييييييييييز



اني اريد تقرير عن الفضاء بس بالانجليزي


و اريد بعد منكم طلب ثاني
رحم الله والديكم
اريد بحث عن ((مستكشف))
مثل ابن بطوطه
وادا في غيره يكون افضل
البحث انجليزي اريده
اريده في اقرب وقت
مسامحه وان شاء الله اتلبون طلبي
تحياتي اختكم
كسولة لكن مو كسلانة
في الانتظار
وبكون شاكرة لكم
سلااااااام:rolleyes:

[Mistress of moon]

هذا تقرير عن الفضاء

Space is a general or specialized concept of a local, relative, containing, or otherwise relevant area —where all objects within have a relationship with (the) space which follows various (theoretically) defineable rules. In common usage, it refers to varied concepts of finite (or local) space (ie. Euclidean space, living space, personal space, social space), or (conceptually) infinite space (ie. the Universe, outer space, all physical space, mathematical space).

The nature of space has been a prime occupation for philosophers and scientists for much of human history, and hence it is difficult to provide an uncontroversial and clear definition outside of specific defined contexts. (See philosophy of space.)

Mathematical spaces
In mathematics, a space is a set, with some particular properties and usually some additional structure. It is not a formally defined concept as such, but a generic name for a number of similar concepts, most of which generalize some abstract properties of the physical concept of space.

In particular, a vector space and specifically a Euclidean space can be seen as generalizations of the concept of a Euclidean coordinate system. Important varieties of vector spaces with more imposed structure include Banach space and Hilbert space. Distance measurement is abstracted as the concept of metric space and volume measurement leads to the concept of measure space.

As far as the concept of dimension is defined, although three-dimensional space is the most commonly thought of dimensional space, the number of dimensions for a space to exist need not be 3: it can also be 0 (a point), 1 (a line), 2 (a plane), more than 3, and with some definitions, a non-integer value. Mathematicians often study general structures that hold regardless of the number of dimensions.

Kinds of mathematical spaces include:

Banach space
Euclidean space
Hilbert space
Metric space
Probability space
Projective space
Topological space
Vector space

Physics and space
Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics, meaning that it cannot be defined via other quantities because there is nothing more fundamental known at present. Thus, similar to the definition of other fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space is defined via measurement. Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard meter or simply meter, is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second (exact).

In classical physics, space is a three-dimensional Euclidean space where any position can be described using three coordinates. Relativistic physics examines spacetime rather than space; spacetime is modeled as a four-dimensional manifold, and currently, there are theories that can support up to eleven-dimensional spaces.

Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and space were seen as independent dimensions. Einstein's work unified the two into spacetime. In spacetime, measurements of space and time are held to be relative to velocity.


Astronomical space
Main article: Outer space
In astronomy, space refers collectively to the relatively empty parts of the universe. Any area outside the atmospheres of any celestial body can be considered 'space'. Although space is certainly spacious, it is now known to be far from empty, and filled with a tenuous plasma. In particular, the boundary between space and Earth's atmosphere is conventionally set at the Karman line.


Spatial measurement
Main article: Measurement
The measurement of physical space has long been important. Geometry, the name given to the branch of mathematics which measures spatial relations, was popularised by the ancient Greeks, although earlier societies had developed measuring systems. The International System of Units, (SI), is now the most common system of units used in the measuring of space, and is almost universally used within science.

Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing the Earth, utilising spatial awareness to try and understand why things exist in specific locations. Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow better navigation, for visualisation purposes and to act as a locational device. Astronomy is the science involved with the observation, explanation and measuring of objects in outer space.


Geographical space
Geographical space is called land, and has a relation to ownership (in which space is seen as property). While some cultures assert the rights of the individual in terms of ownership, other cultures will identify with a communal approach to land ownership. Spatial planning is a method of regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions made at regional, national and international levels. Space can also impact on human and cultural behaviour, being an important factor in architecture, where it will impact on the design of buildings and structures, and on farming. Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of Airspace and of waters is decided internationally. Public space is a term used to define areas of land which are open to all, whilst private property is that area of land owned by an individual or company, for their own use and pleasure.


The philosophy of space
Main article: Philosophy of space and time
Space has a range of definitions.

One view of space is that it is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a set of dimensions in which objects are separated and located, have size and shape, and through which they can move.
A contrasting view is that space is part of a fundamental abstract mathematical conceptual framework (together with time and number) within which we compare and quantify the distance between objects, their sizes, their shapes, and their speeds. In this view space does not refer to any kind of entity that is a "container" that objects "move through".
These opposing views are relevant also to definitions of time. Space is typically described as having three dimensions, and that three numbers are needed to specify the size of any object and/or its location with respect to another location. Modern physics does not treat space and time as independent dimensions, but treats both as features of spacetime – a conception that challenges intuitive notions of distance and time.

An issue of philosophical debate is whether space is an ontological entity itself, or simply a conceptual framework we need to think (and talk) about the world. Another way to frame this is to ask, "Can space itself be measured, or is space part of the measurement system?" The same debate applies also to time, and an important formulation in both areas was given by Immanuel Kant.

In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant described space as an a priori notion that (together with other a priori notions such as time) allows us to comprehend sense experience. With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantify how far apart events occur.

Similar philosophical questions concerning space include: Is space absolute or purely relational? Does space have one correct geometry, or is the geometry of space just a convention? Historical positions in these debates have been taken by Isaac Newton (space is absolute), Gottfried Leibniz (space is relational), and Henri Poincaré (spatial geometry is a convention). Two important thought-experiments connected with these questions are: Newton's bucket argument and Poincaré's sphere-world.


Spaces in psychology
The way in which space is perceived is an area which psychologists first began to study in the middle of the 19th century, and it is now thought by those concerned with such studies to be a distinct branch within psychology. Psychologists analysing the perception of space are concerned with how recognition of an object's physical appearance or its interactions are perceived.

Other, more specialised topics studied include amodal perception and object permanence. The perception of surroundings is important due to its necessary relevance to survival, especially with regards to hunting and self preservation. "Veridical perception" is the term used to describe the processing of the information provided by the sensory organs to an extent whereby it allows interaction with the actuality of that perceived. It is worth noting that the way we perceive space may not necessarily be representative of the actuality of space.

The term "personal space" refers to the amount of space a person likes to maintain between their own person and that of other people.
Space can also cause anxiety in people, with agoraphobia manifesting itself in some people as a fear of open spaces, and claustrophobia being the fear of enclosed spaces.
Astrophobia is the fear of celestial space,
Kenophobia is the fear of empty spaces





وإذا لقيت لج عن ابن بطوطة او اي شخصية ثانيه راح احطه لج

والسموحه ع القصوور
تحياتي
ريد روووز

[كسولة لكن مو كسلانة]

تشكراتي لج اختي الغالية

والله ما تسوى حياتنا بدونج

ألف ألف ألف شكر
والله ما اعرف شلون اشكرج من كل قلبي

ع العموم تسلمين ياالغالية

[كسولة لكن مو كسلانة]

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته

شكرا على بذل هذا المجهود
مسامحه على الازعاج
اريد هالنقاط في التقرير
nationality
age
expeditions
greatest journey
mathod of travel
aims of expedition
other activities
................
وشكرا جزيل الشكر اختي
واعذريني
المفروض اخلي هالنقاط من البدايه
المعذره
تحياتي
كسولة لكن مو كسلانة

[بحر الرفاع]

Ibn Battuta and his Saharan Travels











































Ibn Battuta and his Saharan Travels

The quotations in italics in this article are taken from the book Ibn Battuta in Black Africa by Said Harridun and Noël King (Rex Collings, 1975) [Link to More details and price of Ibn Battuta in Black Africa (http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/1558760881/jimmanntaylor)] (http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/1558760881/jimmanntaylor) I am indebted to Prof. Beckingham for the latest interpretation of the place names mentioned by Ibn Battuta These are detailed in green. My own additions are in blue.

Setting out in 1352, lbn Battuta went by way of Fez and Sijilmasa (identified as Medinet el'Arnira in the Tafilelt, Morocco by FR Rodd.) It is a lovely city. In it there a great deal of sweet dates. The town of Basra is like it for the abundance of its dates, but the dates of Sijilmasa are sweeter. …We arrived after 25 days at Taghaza. (Terhazza as marked on 153, about 150 km NW of Taoudenni) It is a village with no good in it. Amongst its curiosities is the fact that the construction of its houses and its mosques is of rock salt with camel skin roofing and there are no trees in it, the soil is just sand. In it is a salt mine. It is dug out of the ground and is found there in huge slabs, one on top of another as if it had been carved and put under the ground. …The blacks exchange the salt as money as one would exchange gold and silver. They cut it up and trade with it in pieces. …We stayed in it but ten days in miserable condition, because its water is bitter and it is of all places the most full of flies.

He then set out across the desert. This desert is a traveling distance of ten days and there is no water in it except rarely. But we found much water in it in pools left by the rains. One day we found a pool of sweet water between two hillocks of rocks. We quenched our thirst from it and washed our clothes. In that desert truffles are abundant. There are also so many lice in it that people put strings around their necks in which there is mercury which kills the lice …They we arrived at Tلsarahlل where water is exuded by the ground. [R Mauny, V Monteil, A Djenidi, S Robert and J Devisse in Extraits tires des Voyages d'Ibn Battuta, in the series Textes et documents relatifs a' l'histoire de l'Afrique, No.9, published by the University of Dakar, 1966. p.38, n.4, say Tلsarahlل «ne peut ètre que Bir al-Ksaib ou Le-Gçeyb, point d'eau au bord de Ia falaise du Khnachich, a 480 km a vol d'oiseau d'Oualata. C'est le seul qui existe sur l'itineraire Tagلzل -Oualata, et les 10 jours que mentionne notre auteur entre Tagلzل at Tasarahlل correspondent bien aux 250 km qui les separent».] From there they travelled to Iwalatan (Walata or Oualata in Mauritania) and on to Malli (south of Bamako), a journey of twenty four days for a person who exerts himself…That road has many trees which are tall and of great girth: a caravan can find shade in the shadow of one tree … Some of those trees have rotted inside and rainwater collects in them... Bees and honey are in some and people extract the honey from the trees. I have passed by one of these trees and found inside it a weaver with his loom set up in it - he was weaving. I was amazed by him.... There are trees whose fruits are like those of plums, apples, peaches and apricots, though they are not quite the same as these. There are trees that bear fruit like the cucumber, when it ripens it bursts uncovering something like flour, they cook it and eat it and it is sold in the markets. They dig out from the ground a crop like beans and they fry it and eat it. Its taste is like fried peas. Sometimes they grind it and make from it something like a sponge cake, frying with gharti; gharti is a fruit like a plum which is very sweet and harmful to white men when they eat it. The hard part inside is crushed and an oil is extracted from it. From this they derive a number of benefits. Amongst these are: they cook with it, fuel the lamps, fry that sponge I mentioned with it, they use it as an ointment, and they mix it with a kind of earth of theirs and plaster the houses with it in the way whitewash is used.

.... After a distance of ten days' travel from Iwalatan, we arrived at the village of Zaghari, which is a big place with black merchants living in it. [The name Zaghari represents Malinke Diaghara or Fula Diagari in western Massina. The village meant may be Diabali, east of Sokolo, where there are old ruins-see Mauny again p.46 n.9. C Meillasoux on the other hand, in a paper he gave to an International Conference on Manding studies at the School of Oriental & African Studies in London in 1972, maintained that lbn Battuta travelled southwest from Walata and that Zaghari was Diara in Futa Kingui. J 0 Hunwick (Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois) on the other hand, in Journal of African History, 1975, pp 195-206, claims that Zaghari was near Sokolo.] …Then we went from Zaghari and arrived at the great river, the Nile. (To call the Niger the Nile was Ibn Battuta's big mistake. He assumed it flowed eastwards and joined the Nile in Upper Egypt which he had already visited-an easy mistake.) On it is the town of Karsakhu. [Karsakhu is perhaps Kara Sakho, Kara market', on the Niger above Diafarabe.] The Nile (Niger) descends from it (Karsakhu) to Kabara, then to Zagha.

Then the Nile (Niger) comes down from Zagha to Tunbuktu (Timbuktu), then to Kawkaw (Gao), the two places we shall mention below. Then the river flows to Yufi (Nupe?), which is one of the biggest cities of the blacks. A white man cannot go there because they would kill him before he arrived there. Then the river comes down from there to the land of the Nubians who follow the Nasraniyya (Christian) faith, and on to Dunqula (Dongola), which is the biggest town in their land. …Then it descends to the cataracts. This is the last district of the blacks and the first of Uswan (Aswan) in Upper Egypt.

I saw a crocodile in this place (i.e. at Karsakhu) on the Nile (Niger) near the shore like a small canoe.

Then we went from Karsakhu and reached a river called Sansara, which is about ten miles from Malli. [Meillasoux (see above) maintains that the capital of MalIi was on the Gambia. Hunwick (see above) believes that the capital was somewhere between Segu and Bamako.]

My entry into Malli was on the fourteenth of the first month of Jumada in the year '53 (i.e., 753 A.H., 28th June A.D. 1352), and my going out from there was on the twenty-second of Muharram in the year '54 (i.e. 754 AH., 27 February A.D. 1353). I was accompanied by a merchant known as Abu Bakr ibn Yacqub. We set out on the Mima road. I was riding a camel because horses were dear, costing about one hundred mithqals apiece. We reached a large arm of the river which comes out of the Nile (Niger) and which cannot be crossed except in boats. That place has many mosquitoes and nobody passes through except at night. We arrived at the arm of the river in the first third of the night and it was moonlight ... I saw on its bank sixteen beasts with enormous bodies. I was astonished by them. I thought they were elephants because there are plenty there. Then I saw them entering the river and said to Abu Bakr ibn Yacqub. 'What beasts are these?' He said 'These are horses of the river (hippopotami), they have come out to graze on the dry land.' They are more thickset than horses and they have manes and tails, their heads are like the heads of horses and their legs like the legs of elephants. I saw these horses another time when we were travelling on the Nile (Niger) from Tunbuktu to Kawkaw: they were swimming in the water and raising their heads and blowing. The boatmen feared them and came in close to the shore so as not to be drowned by them.

…Then we departed from this village which is by the branch of the river I mentioned, and we arrived at the town of Quri Mansa (or: the built up area of the villages of Mansa). There my camel vhich I was riding died. When I was told by its keeper I came out to look at it. I found the blacks had eaten it as their custom is in eating a dead animal. I sent the two boys I had hired to serve me to buy me a camel at Zaghari which was a distance of about two days journey. Some of the friends of Ibu Bakr son of Yacqub stayed with me while the latter went ahead to receive us at Mima. I stayed there (Quri Mansa) for six days and was entertained by one of the pilgrims in this town until the two boys arrived with the camel.

…Then I departed for the town of Mima [Mima is the Soninke name of a site near Nampala in northern Massina, with ruins.]; in its neighbour hood we dismounted by some wells. We travelled then from there to the city of Tunbuktu, which is four miles from the Nile. Most of its inhabitants are Massufa, people of the veil. Its governor is called Farba Musa. I was present with him one day when he appointed one of the Massufa as amir over a company He placed on him a garment, a turban and trousers, all of them of dyed material. He then seated him on a shield and he was lifted up by the elders of his tribe on their heads.

…At Tunbuktu I embarked on the Nile (Niger) in a small vessel carved from one piece of wood. We used to come ashore every night in a village to buy what we needed of food and ghee in exchange for salt and perfumes and glass ornaments. Then I reached a town whose name I have been caused by Satan) to forget. This town had as its amir an excellent man, a pilgrim called Farba Sulaiman, well known for his bravery and tenacity, no one was able to bend his bow. I did not see among the blacks anyone taller than he nor more massive in body.

Then I travelled to the city of Kawkaw (Gao). It is a big city on the Nile, one of the best of the cities of the blacks. It is one of the biggest and most fertile of their places, with much rice. milk, chicken and fish. In it there are inani pumpkins which have no rivals. The transactions of its people in buying and selling are carried out by means of cowries—as is the case among the people of Malli. I staved there about a month and was the guest of Muhammad ibn cUmar of the people of Miknasa. He was a gentle person, fond of making jokes, a man of merit. He died there after I left.

…Then I travelled from there in the direction of Takadia (Takidda) (Lord Rodd rejected the 3 Tagiddas W or NWN of Agades) [Tigidda is a common name, or constituent element in place names, in kir. There has been much argument about lbn Battuta's Takadda, but it is reasonably certain that it was Azelik. see Djibo M Hamani, Au Carrefour du Soudan et de Ia Berberie; le sultanat Touareg de L'.4yar, 1989, pp 95-98. His view is shared by Prof Beckingham's friend and erstwhile colleague Prof H T Norris] in the hinterland (that is, away from the river) with a large caravan of the men of Ghadamas (Ghadames in Libya), whose guide and leader was al-Hajj Wujjin (the meaning of this word is 'jackal' in the language of the blacks).

I had a camel for riding and a she-camel for carrying provisions. When we set out on the first stage the she-camel broke down. AI-Hajj Wujjin took what was on her and divided it among his companions. They shared out the burden. There was in the caravan a Maghribin (man of Arab north-west Africa) of the people of Tadala who refused to carry any of it in the way other people had done. My servant lad was thirsty one day. I asked the Maghribin for water; he did not give it.

Then we arrived at the land of the Bardama people (a Tuareg group). a tribe of the Berbers. The caravan cannot travel except under their protection; and amongst them the protection of a woman is more important than that of a man. They are nomads, they do not stay in one place. Their dwelling places are strange in form: they set up poles of wood and place mats around them, over that they put interwoven sticks and over them skins or cotton cloth. Their women are the most perfect of women in beauty and the most comely in figure, in addition to being pure white and fat. I did not see in the land anyone who attained to their standard of fatness. These women's food is cow's milk and pounded millet; they drink it mixed with water, uncooked, morning and evening. A man who wants to marry among them has to settle with them in the country near them, and not take his spouse farther than either Kawkaw or Iwalatan.

…We exerted ourselves in travelling till we reached the city of Takadda…The houses of Takadda are built of red stone. Its water supply flows over the copper mines (The comment about copper mines in this area appears to be an inversion of memory) and its colour and taste are changed by that fact. There is no cultivation there except a little wheat which is eaten by the merchants and visitors. It is sold at the rate of twenty of their mudds for a Mithqal of gold.

…The people of Takadda carry on no business but trading. Every year they travel to Egypt and bring from there everything there is in the country by way of fine cloths and other things. For its people ease of life and ample condition are supreme; they vie with one another in the number of slaves and servants they have—as likewise do the people of Malli and Iwalatan. They do not sell educated women-slaves, except very rarely and at a great price.

…There is a copper mine outside Takadda. The people dig for it in the earth, bring it to the town, and smelt it in their houses. This is done by their men, and the women-slaves. When they have smelted it into red copper, they make it into rods about the length of a span and a half: some are of fine gauge and some thick. The thick are sold at the rate of four hundred rods for a mithqal of gold, the fine for six or seven hundred to the mithqal it is their means of exchange. They buy meat and firewood with the fine rods: they buy male and female slaves, millet, ghee, and wheat with the thick. Copper is carried from there to the city of Kubar (Gobir) in the land of the unbelievers, to Zaghay and to the country of Barnu (Bornu) which is at a distance of forty days from Takadda. Its people are Muslim; they have a king whose name is Idris, who does not appear before the people nor speak to them except from behind a curtain. From this country are brought beautiful slave women and eunuchs and heavy fabrics. Copper is also taken from Takadda to Jujuwat and to the land of the Murtibin and to other places.

...I wanted to travel to Tuwat. I carried provisions for seventy nights since (normal) food is not to be found between Takadda and Tuwat, only meat and milk and ghee which are bought in exchange for cloth. I left Takadda on Thursday, the eleventh of Shacban in the year '54 (AH. 754, 11th September A.D. 1353) in a big caravan which included Jacfar al-Tuwati, who is an eminent person, and the faqih Muhammad ibn cAbd Allah, qadi of Takadda. In the caravan there were about six hundred slavewomen. We arrived at Kahir in the land of the sultan of Karkari. It is a land of plentiful grass. The people buy sheep therefrom the Berbers and cut the meat into strips. This is carried by the people of Tuwat to their country.

From that land we entered into a wilderness with no buildings in it and no water: it is three days journey. Then we travelled after that fifteen days through a wilderness which has no buildings but there is water. We reached the place from which the road to Ghat (which continues to Egypt) and the road to Tuwat (In Azaoua) bifurcate. And there are there water-beds whose water flows over iron; when white cloths are washed in it, their colour becomes black. We travelled from there for ten days, and arrived at the country of the Hakkar (Ahoggar) who are a tribe of the Berbers and wear face-veils. There is no good in them… We journeyed a month in the land of Hakkar: it has a scarcity of plants and an abundance of stones, the road too is rough.

Then we reached Buda [40 km NW of Adrar] which is one of the biggest villages of Tuwat. Its soil consists of sand and saline swamp. Its dates are plentiful but not sweet; yet its people prefer them to the dates of Sijilmasa. There is no cultivation there, no ghee, no olive oil. These things are brought to it from the land of the Maghrib. The food of its people is dates and locusts which are plentiful in their area. They preserve them as they store dates and feed on them. They go out to hunt locusts before sunrise when they cannot fly because of the cold.

We staved at Buda some days, then we travelled in a caravan and in the middle of Dhu al-Qada we arrived at the city of Sijilmasa. I went out from it on the second of Dhu ' al-Hijja (29 December A.D. 1353) during a period of fierce cold. A lot of snow came down on the road. I have seen many rough roads and much snow in Bukhara and Samarkand and in Khurasan (in Persia), and in the land of the Turks, but I have never seen anything more difficult than the road of Umm Janaiba.













SUMMARY



· Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier in Moroco in 1304 and studied Islamic law. He lived in the fourteenth century, travelled more in Asia, Africa and Europe.



· When he was twenty, he decided to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca. He travelled by ship in the Mediterranean, the Black sea, the Gulf, the Red sea, the Indian Ocean and the Sea of China. He went in camel caravans across the deserts of the Sahara and Arabia and sailed on the Nile and the Volga. He crossed mountain ranges like the Himalayas and the Atlas and visited exotic islands like the Maldives, Sumatra, Ceylon and Zanzibar.



· He was not very well-off but was an Islamic scholar and judge. In some places, such as Moghul India, he was given jobs by the local sultans and was once even an ambassador.



· Of course he had many adventures. Some of the ships he sailed in were nearly shipwrecked because of storms and others were attacked by pirates. Once, he was captured by robbers in India and only just escaped with his life. In Delhi, he was made a prisoner by the sultan and afterwards lived like a hermit for months.



· Ibn Battuta had some wonderful experiences. He described his pilgrimages to Mecca and his trip to Jerusalem. He saw beautiful cities like Alexandria, Cairo, Damascus and Constantinople. He stayed in the magnificent courts of rulers like the Sultan of Delhi and the king of Granada.



· Ibn Battuta loved his home town, Tangier, most of all. When he finally returned to live there in 1354, the Sultan of Moroco wanted to know about his travels and they were written down in a travel book.



· NAME : MOHAMMED AHMED RAKHA. CLASS : 1 ALAM 1 .


Ibn Battuta died in about 1369 after along and very eventful life.





هذي عن ابن بطوطه الي حصلته واتمنى يعجبج